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CyberStrategy Background

This Background Paper surveys current trends and development in information systems generally. It is a supporting document for our CyberStrategy Implementation Plan, which is intended to provide our community with the resources to implement our Cyberstrategy.

Contents

New and emerging desktop computing implementations are providing small non-profit organizations with computational capabilities previously confined to government agencies and large corporations. This democratization of computer power will substantially enhance the ability of the public interest sector to influence the national policy process.

These powerful desktop implementations are rapidly spreading into the homes of millions of American citizens. The convergence of office and home computers offers new and exciting opportunities for membership participation in the work of non-profit organizations, and greatly enhances the potential of individual citizens to influence the national policy process.

These opportunities require continuous improvement in information systems by the advocacy community, maintaining parity with corporate and government capabilities, and our adversaries in the policy arena. Continuous improvement is also required to engage the energies and match the achievements of the emerging cadre of independent cyber-activists.

The past decade has witnessed dramatic evolution in information systems. Over this period, new generations of computer platforms have been introduced at intervals of two to three years, and new software applications at intervals of two years or less. At any given time, a new state-of-the-art computer has typically cost in the neighborhood of $3,000 to $5,000 [excluding software and installation], though its resale value falls by about half each year after purchase.

The tables at the end of this document portray [in general terms] the past and future progress of work-station and network information systems, with each "tier" representing roughly a two year intervals of current state-of-the-art. Each matrix includes rows that list implementation tiers, labeled for convenient reference as various metals, and columns that describe the particular hardware or software required to reach that level. The metals metaphor provides a neutral nomenclature that covers both PC and Mac computers -- too frequently computer generations are discussed simply from a PC perspective, which overlooks the significant Mac legacy in our community. In each case, the dates are for the point in time at which these implementations would represent a cost-effective acquisition for our community. Inevitably, the initial purchasers of new computers pay a substantial premium of several thousand dollars for "being the first kid on the block" to buy a new model computer, and prices typically fall to $3,000 to $5,000 within a few months after initial release to the market. The "Electrum" implementation is currently about the best cost-effective implementation on the market today, while the "Tin" implementation was the best-buy a decade ago.

A - Stations

Desk-top personal computers have revolutionized the work of non-profit advocacy organizations. Contemporary personal computers have powerful capabilities which were previously restricted to large corporations and government agencies. Today, top-of-the-line desktop computers rival the capabilities of the most powerful supercomputers of two decades ago.

The radical improvements in personal computing have been obscured by the substantial continuity in the external appearance of the desk-top work-station. From the outside, today's station looks much like that of its predecessors -- a keyboard, a box about the size of a small suitcase, and a monitor, all in any color you want as long as it is beige. But these external similarities have masked profound quantitative and qualitative internal improvements. Although no single performance benchmark fully captures these developments, the speed and performance of today's desktop computers are anywhere from 100 to 100,000 times that of personal computers of fifteen years ago.

The development of desk-top work-stations has proceeded through at least three major phases over the past fifteen years.

• Computers in the early 1980s [the PC, XT, AT, Apple and Macintosh - Zinc through Tin] offered qualitative improvements over typewriters, with word-processing applications occasionally supplemented by spread-sheet packages for numerical analyses or data-base managers used to maintain mailing lists. These computers substantially improved the performance of existing tasks such as text editing, even though they were only able to do one type of task at a time. This constraint was of little significance at the time, as typically only one or two 8-bit and 16-bit applications would be installed on a given desktop station.
• By the late 1980s, newer computers such as the 386 PC and the Mac-II [Brass and Copper] added more powerful features to these 16-bit applications. In the early 1990s, the introduction of the 486 PC, coupled with the Windows 3.0 operating system, provided easy-to-use interfaces [such as graphical icons and the mouse] that had long been a hall-mark of Apple computers [Bronze and Silver]. And with the introduction of the Quadra and Premia, Apple sought to match the processing power of rival PCS. The ease of use of these computers was greatly enhanced by the ability to simultaneously run several 16-bit applications, and to move data between applications, such as moving a data table from a spread-sheet to a word processor. This improved flexibility enhanced the utility of applications, with typical desk-tops running four application packages. These systems expanded capabilities included handling much larger files and documents, which could be handled at higher speeds [spelling checked faster, budgets recalculated more quickly, and so forth].
• By the mid-1990s, Pentium-based PCS and the PowerMac [Electrum] computers, using as many as eight of the more powerful 32-bit applications, transformed quantitative improvement in speed into qualitative transformation in capability. These systems carried the trend toward integrated applications to its logical conclusion, and offered improved ability to simultaneously use multiple applications. But these systems offer far more than simply doing traditional tasks faster and more efficiently, as important as this may be. These new systems support entirely novel applications, such as Personal Information Mangers, Contact Managers, presentation managers, and graphics and image processing -- enabling their users to accomplish things that simply couldn't be done before in a desk-top environment.

The division between computer "boxes" themselves and peripherals/application software that can be used by that box serves as a separator between some of the tiers. The boxes and the associated level of central processing unit (CPU) cost the most, but the less expensive peripherals and applications greatly expand the capabilities of the basic box. Only with the peripherals and applications is the full potential of the particular CPU exploited. The implementation matrices include tiers based on CPU box level (elemental metals in the table) and, between some of those tiers, intermediate tiers (alloys of the elemental metals) based on acquisition of the relevant peripherals and applications [along with improved versions of the basic CPU platform].

The growth in performance of these newest computers is exceeded only by the growth in hardware and software and software requirements.

• Random access memory [RAM] is the part of the computer that holds the software and data currently in use. The RAM of a first-class IBM XT computer of a dozen year ago was 128 kilobytes [thousand letters], the equivalent of a dozen encyclopedia pages. The RAM of a contemporary computer such as a Pentium is [at a minimum] 16 Megabytes [million letters], which is over three times the volume of the complete works of Shakespeare.
• The hard-drive is the part of the computer on which software, text documents and other files are stored. The IBM XT of a dozen years ago had a hard-drive of 10 Megabytes [MB], smaller than the 16 MB RAM of a new Pentium! The 1 gigabyte [billion letters] hard-drive of a contemporary Pentium holds the equivalent of a pickup-truck full of printed paper.
• The new Windows-95 operating system is variously estimated to include somewhere between 2,000,000 to 11,000,000 lines of computer code [each line of code is a sentence instructing the computer to perform a specific task]. The Space Shuttle requires only 4,000,000 lines of code.
• Simply to install Windows-95 onto a computer hard-drive would require several times the total storage capacity of computers built as recently as five years ago.

There is no escape from the reality that older computers [older than "Silver"] are simply incapable of supporting these new information systems and applications.

• Although in principle it is physically possible to upgrade these older pre-Bronze Age machines, considerable time and effort would be required to bring them up to modern performance standards. And even with such upgrades, the computers would still have small hard-disks and limited power supplies. Upgrading these as well would require a piecemeal replacement of just about everything other than the box-shell and the keyboard, and the end result would be a jury-rigged system costing more than an all-new computer.
• The end is in sight even for recently built [Bronze and Silver] systems. Intel, the premier producer of computer chips, has announced that it will cease production of these 486 computer chips by the end of 1995. Acting now to purchase the very last of these machines to be produced at a liquidation sale is a certain path toward rapid obsolescence.

During the 1980s, annual sales of desktop computers for office use grew at a rate of about 10% each year, from five million units to ten million units. And in the early 1990s, annual sales increased dramatically, with home computer sales growing at 20% annually. Total sales surpassed twenty million units in the mid-90s, and are expected to approach forty million units by the end of the decade [according to a study by the consulting firm Dataquest], most of which will be platforms more sophisticated than today's Pentium [according to projections by BIS Strategic Decisions]. Our analysis is a composite of the projections provided by these two firms.

The current boom in computers sales derives from a convergence of office and home computing capabilities. A decade ago, the computer market was fundamentally divided between office computers costing anywhere from $5,000 to $8,000, and much less capable home computers typically costing between $1,000 and $2,000 [in 1995 equivalent dollars, adjusted for inflation]. While desk-top computers brought powerful new capabilities to the office, home users were relegated to playing simple games, typing short letters, and storing recipes. Today, both home and office users have converged on highly-capable systems typically costing about $3,000. The profound expansion in the range of capabilities of home computers accounts for the greatly expanded ownership of these systems, as both home and office systems provide equivalent applications.

Mac implementations have been consistently priced higher than PC's with equivalent performance. This reflects the greater "user-friendliness" of the Apple computers, which are ready to run out of the box, in contrast to PC's, which typically require non-trivial tuning and adjustment before becoming fully operable. This set-up cost, paid either in user or consultant time, results in the two implementations having roughly equivalent costs, when all is said and done.

This price difference highlights the importance of the computer's Total Cost of Ownership, which includes the post-purchase costs of training, maintenance and upgrades. According to a study performed by The Gartner Group, the total cost of ownership of a new computer in 1995 is approximately $40,000 over a five-year lifetime, double the $20,000 lifetime cost of a computer in 1987. This study assumed higher pay-rates than typically prevail in the non-profit community, but even after adjusting for this factor, the initial capital outlay of $5,000 to purchase the computer is only a fraction of the total cost. Thus the apparent savings from purchasing "sunset" systems [such as the 486 or Quadra systems in 1995] are negligible compared to total cost of ownership.

The Electrum Pentium/PowerPC implementation is certainly not the last word in computers. It is already foreseeable that new implementations will reach the market every couple of years for the indefinite future. Capabilities which currently cost as much as a new car will come within reach of non-profit organizations and individuals by the end of this decade:

• Gold - 1997 - Next-generation P6/PowerPC computers supporting flexible groupware implementations, such as Lotus Notes, to facilitate enterprise-wide collaboration, as well as advanced image processing software for web-authoring support. These systems will be based on more sophisticated operating systems, such as the "Nashville" upgrade to Windows-95 scheduled for release in late 1996, and the new Copland operating system for the Mac. In contrast to previous implementations, which typically ran four applications [such as word processing, presentations, etc], these desktop systems will typically support eight or more applications.
• Platinum - 1999 - Follow-on generation P7/RISC [reduced instruction set computer] systems with very high-speed communications allowing video conferencing, and very high-speed local area networks. New operating systems, such as the Microsoft "Memphis" [planned for release in 1998] and Apple's Gershwin will facilitate a variety of new capabilities made possible by these new 64-bit systems and applications.
• Palladium - 2001 - Future-generation software/hardware implementations beyond those currently identified (costs to be determined). Video teleconferencing? Speech recognition? Automated language translation?
• Iridium - 2003 - ? ?? ???

The next-generation Gold systems will offer performance equivalent to the Cray-1 super computer of two decades ago. And desk-top systems on the far horizon, such as the notional Iridium will provide performance equivalent to the Cray Y-MP supercomputer of the late 1980s.

Installed Base of Computers In 1995 only a small fraction of installed desktop computers were fully capable of supporting sophisticated 32-bit multi-tasking applications, which require Pentium/PowerPC platforms. However, as a result of greatly increased annual sales levels, by the end of this decade most installed computers will support such applications, as well as more advanced implementations which have yet to be identified. These projections are based on our composite analysis of forecast sales, and are consistent with other estimates of the existing intalled base of computers.

Most of these computers will reside in the homes of individual citizens. By the end of this decade, the aggregate computational power of home computers will rival that of all desk-top office computers in public, private, and non-profit organizations combined. In the 1980s, typically the staff of a national organization had computers, and the membership did not. By the end of the 1990s, many organizations will find that the aggregate computational power of the national staff will be small relative to that of their membership.

B - Networks

The development of individual workstations has been matched by the development of networks of computers. And existing computers from before the Bronze-age have limited, and increasingly no, capability to exploit these advantages of computer networks. Local Area Networks [LANs] links stations and staff within an organization, while Wide Area Networks [WANs] such as the Internet link stations, staff and others at different organizations and locations.

Computer networks provide a big boost in productivity for organizations. They enable organizations to share resources, such as printers, modems, and drives within organizations, and enhance coordination within and among organizations through file-sharing, E-mail and group scheduling. The most powerful feature of networking for advocates and analysts is that resources and information from around the organization (through local area networks or LANs) or around the world (through the mother of all networks, the Internet, and other wide area networks or WANs) are directly available through the person's desktop PC. The desktop paradigm of networking recognizes that for organizations and individuals to truly leverage the benefits of computers and digital communication, functions and capabilities should be available directly from the individual's PC. Only in this way can these technologies become integrated into daily work and become as routine as the phone on your desk. As a result of these powerful capabilities, computer networks have become common-place in most enterprises.

1 - Local Area Networks - LAN

A Local Area Network [LAN] of computers enables an organization to combine the skills of different people and the power of different equipment, regardless of the physical locations of the people or the equipment, and by doing so to reap enormous benefits. A well-designed LAN enables staff to instantaneously and effortlessly collaborate, view, change and exchange information. With a computer network they can share the same electronic files from their own computer without copying or transferring files. With LAN integrated applications, such as scheduling and task management, network users can collaborate with unprecedented ease.

A Peer-to-peer Local Area Network enables a small number of networked computers to function as both a server and a workstation. In a peer-to-peer network the operating system is installed on every networked computer; this enables any networked computer to provide resources and services to all other networked computers. For example, each networked computer can allow other computers to access its files and use connected printers while it is in use as a workstation.

A larger number of computers can be linked into a Local Area Network using a client-server arrangement, of which Novell NetWare is the most common implementation.

• The NetWare 3.12 network operating system, which runs on a 386 or 486 server, enables users of the same or different desktop operating systems to share file, print and other services.
• The NetWare 4 network operating system, which runs on: A 386-, 486- or Pentium-based server enables users of the same or different desktop operating systems to share file, print and other services and to view and use a multi-server network as a single, enterprise-wide information system. NetWare 4.02 contains a database of users and devices on the network, called NetWare Directory Services, that enables management of multiple, complex domains as if they were a unified whole, and is an effective network operating system for maintaining and managing networks with more than one server.

Ethernet is an inexpensive LAN infrastructure which supports both peer-to-peer and client-server architectures. Ethernet provides exchange of data at rates of 10 megabits/second [Mbps], with adapter cards costing approximately $150 per workstation. The Ethernet 10BASE-T system is designed to used voice-grade telephone cable that may already be installed. Many sites choose to install higher quality "Category 5" cables and connectors to support 10BASE-T, and which provide the infrastructure for the newer 100-Mbps Ethernet media systems, facilitating future increases in network traffic.

Although our community started networking in earnest in the last few years, many organizations remain unconnected, and many others currently have obsolescent systems. The problems facing organizations wanting to network are twofold; first, organizations are not sure which networking option will meet their needs and, second, networks can sometimes be daunting to install and administer for non-technical staff.

The market for client-server network operating systems is currently dominated by Novell, which runs over 75% of server networks. Novell is available in two main flavors - the 3.x generation (Novell 3.11 and venerable 3.12) and 4.x generation (Novell 4.11 being the latest). Both types integrate well with Microsoft Windows and provide reliable performance. Windows NT is making inroads with its superior performance, easy maintenance and aggressive pricing.

Case Study: Council for a Livable World

Novell 3.12 and Internet router setup provides an example of modern server networking and desktop integration.

Pros

User management, data backups and network troubleshooting are centralized, making the server model often easier to administer than its peer-to-peer equivalent Printing to a remote printer and file transfers are generally faster and more reliable. New capabilities added to the server are available to all those connected to it.

Cons

Client-server setups are generally more expensive than their peer-to-peer equivalents. A reliable computer must be dedicated as a fileserver. Although a good value, these systems are still more expensive than peer-to-peer networks (especially for smaller networks of five users or less where the "price per seat" of Novell or NT is quite high). The operating software usually requires a computer specialist to install and configure. A failure in the fileserver can bring a whole organization to a standstill.

Note that new types of network engineering are increasingly combining the best of server-based operations (performance, security) with the strengths of peer-to-peer networks (flexibility and cost) by running both server-based and peer network operating systems simultaneously. These hybrid networks could well be the future of client-server networking.

A peer-to-peer network links computers together to share data and peripherals. Each computer can act as a information repository or retriever; its hard drive or peripherals are available to others on the network. Peer-to-peer networking is dominated by such players as Microsoft (with Windows for Workgroups 3.11 and Windows 95), LANtastic (the 5.x and 6.x generations), Banyan Vines and the AppleTalk. All are priced attractively especially for smaller offices or workgroups.

Case study: The Federation of American Scientists

Windows for Workgroups network is a demonstration of the power and cost-effectiveness of peer-to-peer networking.

Pros

Peer-to-peer networking is cheap. Packages such as Microsoft Windows for Workgroups or Windows 95, which come bundled with many new systems, already have networking capabilities built in. It is particularly cost-effective for small organizations that may not need the capabilities of a dedicated fileserver. Newer peer-to-peer networks, such as LANtastic 6.x or Windows 95, also provide better management tools and easy to use interfaces than their older incarnations.

Cons

Peer-to-peer networks tend to be harder to troubleshoot and are less reliable than client-server setups. Reliability problems are especially acute for daisy-chained installations where workstations are linked together in a chain. A failure in any one of the workstations incapacitates the whole network. Newer installations using hubs (where computers are separately linked to a central console) have helped eased reliability concerns. Peer-to-peer network performance is still sluggish when transferring larger files (such as sharing a database) and tend to require more powerful workstations than in a client-server installations where the server handles much of the data processing.

Considerations when choosing a network operating system:

• What is the network for? If an organization relies on a large donor database with multiple data processors, a fileserver setup will provide the necessary performance and security, a peer-to-peer setup probably will not). On the other hand, organizations consisting of a number of separate and operationally independent projects will probably find few applications for client-server implementations.
• How many users will be on the network? This is perhaps the most critical determinant for chosing between peer-to-peer and client-server. For organizations with only a few staff members, the choice will initially be peer-to-peer. And with organizations with more than a dozen staff members, the choice is certainly client-server.
• What kind of hardware does my organization have? What additional hardware must be purchased for the network? Peer-to-peer LANs can provide a relatively low cost initial implementation, and establish an cabling infrastructure that can subsequently be used to support migration to a client-server architecture.
• Will someone manage the network and if so, who? Although peer-to-peer LANs are less stable than client-server implementations, most problems can usually be solved by simply turning the computers off and restarting them. Client-server systems, however, require the attention of a [nearly] full time systems administrator to maintain optimal functionality.

Regardless of HOW our organizations choose to network, it is clear that we SHOULD network. Only in this way will we be able to make the most of our equipment and communications infrastructure.

2 - Wide Area Networks - WAN

The various Wide Area Network Internet applications, such as Usenet and the World Wide Web, are discussed at length in our Cyberstrategy. While pre-Bronze Age machines are capable of accessing the more rudimentary elements of Internet, such as ftp and gopher, the more powerful implementations such as the World Wide Web are largely beyond their reach. And these machines have only limited potential for even Local Area Network integration at the enterprise level.

Currently, the basic device for Wide Area Network access is the modem [MOdulator/DEModulator]. A modem transforms digital signals from a computer into analog signals for transmission over telephone lines, and converts incoming analog signals back into their digital equivalents. Initially, most modems operated at speeds of 1200 or 2400 bps [bits-per-second], though by the late 1980s units operating at 9600 bps were common. In the early 1990s modems operating at 14.4 kbps [thousands of bits per second] were introduced, and today's high-speed modems operate at 28.8 kilo-bits per second.

Although contemporary 28.8 kbps modems are more than 20 times faster than modems of a decade ago, further advances in speed will require using a different technology. Modem speed is limited by the requirement to convert between the digital format of the computer and the analog format of standard telephone lines.

Integrated Services Digital Network (ISDN) lines carry three digital channels: two "B" channels operating at 64,000 bps, and a "D" channel that carries control signals or serves as a third data channel, at 16,000 bps. With appropriate data compression schemes, ISDN can transfer data at hundreds of kilobits per second. ISDN has been under development for many years, but until recently it was joked that ISDN either stood from "I Still Don't Need" or "It Still Does Nothing" -- now this is changing.

Even higher speed connectivity is available, and it may be anticipated that with time even ISDN will be superseded by faster leased-line connections. T-1, which carries data at 1,544,000 bits-per-second, could transfer a megabyte in less than 10 seconds. Although T-1 is the fastest speed typically used to connect LANs to the Internet, it is not fast enough for full-screen, full-motion video, which requires at least 10,000,000 bits-per-second. A T-3 leased-line connection carries data at 45,000,000 bits-per-second, which is more than enough for full-screen, full-motion video.

ISDN, along with even higher speed WAN technologies [T-1, T-3 and SONET], will have a significant impact on LAN architectures as well. Currently, dial-up modems are connected to individual computer work-stations, bypassing an organization's local area network [if any]. The cost, complexity, and capabilities of ISDN and other high-speed WAN connectivity mandates routing through a client-server LAN -- individual client stations are connected to the LAN server, which is in turn connected to the ISDN gateway to the Internet. While peer-to-peer LANs were sufficient for small organizations in modem era, client-server LANs will be mandatory as we move to higher-speed implementations such as ISDN.

In the past, our community's LAN implementations were largely driven by the distinctive organizational requirements. Some organizations with highly integrated staff functions moved quickly to implement LANs, while others with distributed office locations or decentralized operating styles found less utility in the LAN environment. Increasingly, however, the opportunities provided by high-speed wide area network Internet connectivity will move our entire community toward client-server LAN implementations.

Robust Local Area Networks are increasing essential to the utilization of peripheral resources such as printers and scanners, and the effective coordination of staff work. Wide Area Networks, particularly the Internet, are increasingly essential to effective collaboration among organizations, between organizations and their memberships, and among the public at large. Emerging software implementations, such as the World Wide Web and groupware, will increase the central role of such networking over the next several years.

Stations
Tier	Year	Platform	RAM	Hard-Drive	Op System	Original	Current
PC & Mac		PC / Mac	kb	MB		price	price
Stone	1977	Selectric Apple II	4		System 2	$3,100
Zinc	1979	TRS-80 Apple II+	48	floppy	CP/M System 3	$2,595
Iron	1981	8086/4-PC Apple II+	64	floppy	DOS 1.0 System 3	$5,200 $2,000	$29 ? ?
Lead	1983	286/4-XT Apple IIe	128	10	DOS 2.0 System 3	$6,550 $2,175	$95 $148
Tin	1985	286/6-AT Macintosh	256	20	DOS 3.0 System 4	$6,500 $2,825	$125 $175
Brass	1987	386/16 Mac II	640	40	DOS 3.3 System 5	$8,975 $8,550	$350 $300
Copper	1989	386/33 Mac IIcx	2,000	80	DOS 4.0 System 6	$5,100 $5,050	$350 $400
Bronze	1991	486/33 Quadra 900	4,000	120	Windows 3.0 System 7	$3,025 $5,090	$700 $800
Silver	1993	486/66 Quadra 950	8,000	300	Windows 3.1 System 7 Pro	$3,300 $3,550	$1,500 $2,100
Electrum	1995	P5/100 PowerMac	16,000	1,000	Windows 3.11 System 7.5	$3,695 $5,309	$3,695 $5,309
Gold	1997	P6/200 PPC	32,000	2,000	Nashville Copland	$3,000 $3,000	$7,500
Platinum	1999	P7/300 PPC	64,000	4,000	Memphis Gershwin	$3,000 $3,000	$15,000
Palladium	2001	P8/400 PPC	128,000	8,000	? ? ? ?	$3,000 $3,000	$50,000 ?
Iridium	2003	P9/500 PPC	256,000	16,000	? ? ? ? ? ?	$3,000 $3,000	$250,000 ?

Nets
Tier	Year	Platform	Internal	External	"push"	"push"	"interactive"	"pull"
			LAN	kbits/sec	FAX	E-mail	Internet	Website
Stone	1977	Selectric Apple II
Zinc	1979	TRS-80 Apple II+
Iron	1981	8086/4-PC Apple II+		modem .3
Lead	1983	286/-4XT Apple IIe		.3
Tin	1985	286/6-AT Macintosh	AppleTalk	modem 1.2	manual
Brass	1987	386/16 Mac II	Novell 2.15 AppleTalk	modem 2.4	manual	text elm
Copper	1989	386/33 Mac IIcx	Novell 3.0 AppleTalk 2	modem 9.6	manual	Eudora 1.3		ftp telnet
Bronze	1991	486/33 Quadra 900	Novell 3.1 AppleTalk 2	modem 14.4	manual	Eudora 1.4		ftp archie
Silver	1993	486/66 Quadra 950	Novell 3.12 AppleTalk 2	modem 14.4	WinFax	Eudora 1.4.2	listserv	gopher veronica
Electrum	1995	P5/100 PowerMac	Novell 4.1 AppleTalk 2	modem 28.8	WinFax	Eudora 1.4.4	usenet Netscape	WWW Netscape
Gold	1997	P6/200 PPC	Novell 5.x AppleTalk x?	ISDN 128		groupware	groupware	groupware
Platinum	1999	P7/300 PPC	? ? ? ?	T-1 1,544		? ?	? ?	? ?
Palladium	2001	P8/600 PPC	? ? ? ? ? ?	T-3 44,736		? ? ?	? ? ?	? ? ?
Iridium	2003	P9 PPC	? ? ? ? ? ? ? ?	SONET 155,530		? ? ? ?	? ? ? ?	? ? ? ?

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